Bystander effect

 Imagine that you're walking down the street when you see someone fall down on the sidewalk. You glance around, expecting that someone will help the other person up, but not one seems to be reacting. You hesitate and feel uncertain. If so many other people are ignoring the situation, does that mean that you should to?

This troubling phenomenon is known as the bystander effect, where the more people are present during an emergency, the less likely anyone one person is to step in and help.1 There are many factors that play a role in why it happens, including things like fear of social judgment, diffusion of responsibility, lack of clarity, and even, at time, bystander apathy.

Keep reading to learn more about why the bystander effect happens, the factors that can play a role, and the steps we can take to help overcome it.

Meaning of the Bystander Effect

The bystander effect, also known as bystander apathy, refers to the phenomenon in which the greater the number of people present, the less likely they are to help a person in distress.

If you witnessed an emergency happening right before your eyes, you would undoubtedly act to help the person in trouble, right? While we might all like to believe this is true, psychologists suggest that whether or not you intervene might depend upon the number of other witnesses present.

If many people nearby are also not reacting, you may be less likely to respond. While not everyone falls victim to this inaction, it's common enough that you can probably think of a few times that you've witnessed or even experienced this yourself.

How the Bystander Effect Works

While it might seem like it's better to have many people present who can spring into action if help is needed, some evidence suggests that the opposite is actually true. During an emergency, you may be *more* likely to recieve help if there are only one or very few witnesses.

Being part of a large crowd makes it so no single person has to take responsibility for an action (or inaction).

In a series of classic studies, researchers Bibb Latané and John Darley found that the time it takes the participant to seek help varies depending on how many other observers are in the room. In one experiment, subjects were placed in one of three treatment conditions: alone in a room, with two other participants, or with two confederates who pretended to be normal participants.

As the participants sat filling out questionnaires, smoke began to fill the room. When participants were alone, 75% reported the smoke to the experimenters. In contrast, just 38% of participants in a room with two others reported the smoke. In the final group, the two confederates in the experiment noted the smoke and then ignored it, resulting in only 10% of the participants reporting it.

Additional experiments by Latané and Rodin during the late 1960s found that 70% of people would help a distressed woman when they were the only witnesses. However, only about 40% offered assistance when other people were present.

Real-Life Example of the Bystander Effect

The most frequently cited example of the bystander effect in introductory psychology textbooks is the brutal murder of a young woman named Catherine "Kitty" ​Genovese. On Friday, March 13, 1964, 28-year-old Genovese was returning home from work. As she approached her apartment entrance, she was attacked and stabbed by a man, later identified as Winston Moseley.

Despite Genovese's repeated calls for help, none of the dozen or so people in the nearby apartment building who reportedly heard her cries called the police to report the incident. The attack first began at 3:20 AM, but it was not until 3:50 AM that someone first contacted the police.

The initial article published in The New York Times sensationalized the case and contained several factual inaccuracies. The story of the murder became a source of interest to the public and psychologists, who wondered how so many people could witness the terrible crime and do nothing to help.

Subsequent investigations revealed facts that were not initially included in the early reports about the murder. Many of the people who "witnessed" the murder did not have a clear view of the street, could not clearly hear what was happening, and were unclear about what was happening.

An article in the September 2007 issue of American Psychologist concluded that Genovese's murder has been largely misrepresented primarily due to the inaccuracies repeatedly published in newspaper articles and psychology textbooks.2

While Genovese's case has been subject to numerous misrepresentations and inaccuracies, numerous other cases have been reported in recent years. The bystander effect can clearly impact social behavior, but why exactly does it happen? Why don't we help when we are part of a crowd?

Why Does It Happen?

Why is it that we sometimes feel less pressured to help out when there are many other people around? Two major factors contribute to the bystander effect.

Diffusion of Responsibility

First, the presence of other people creates a diffusion of responsibility. In other words, having more people around makes us feel less personally responsible for intervening when help is needed. "Why should *I* be the only one to step up," we might think. "Someone else can do something."

Because there are other observers, individuals do not feel as much pressure to take action. The responsibility to act is thought to be shared among all of those present.

Social Pressure

The second reason is the need to behave in correct, socially acceptable ways. We worry that we'll be judged for helping, a phenomenon known as evaluation apprehension.3

When other observers fail to react, individuals often take this as a signal that a response is unnecessary or inappropriate.

Pluralistic Ignorance

Another factor that plays a role in the bystander effect is the belief that since no one else is reacting, it must not actually be an emergency. Researchers refer to this as pluralistic ignorance.3

Researchers have found that onlookers are less likely to intervene if the situation is ambiguous. In the case of Kitty Genovese, many of the 38 witnesses reported that they believed that what they overheard was a "lover's quarrel" and did not realize that the young woman was actually being murdered.

A crisis is often incredibly chaotic. That means that the situation is not always crystal clear. Onlookers might wonder exactly what is happening.

During such moments, people often look to others in the group to determine what is appropriate. When they see that no one else is reacting, it signals that perhaps no action is needed after all.

Preventing the Bystander Effect

What can you do to overcome the bystander effect? Some psychologists suggest that simply being aware of this tendency is perhaps the greatest way to break the cycle.

When faced with a situation that requires action, understand how the bystander effect might hold you back and consciously take steps to overcome it.

There are situations where you can help others who are experiencing bullying, harassment, or discrimination. Rather than being a bystander, you can become an upstander who takes a stand against injustice and potential violence.

According to the American Psychological Association, becoming an upstander involves noticing the situation, evaluating the nature of the problem, and assuming responsibility for intervening. Then, it's important to decide if you have the skills or ability to approach the situation and then choose to take action.4

However, this does not mean you should place yourself in danger. It's vital to assess the situation and take steps to protect your own safety.

How to Get Help If You Need It

But what if you need assistance? How can you inspire others to help?

One frequently recommended tactic is to single out one person from the crowd. Make eye contact and ask that individual specifically for help. By personalizing your request, it becomes much harder for people to turn you down.

4 Sources

Kendra Cherry

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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